Media Ownwership and Control free essay sample

This paper shall give an overview of ownership and control of the media by considering the ownership and control patterns and models that exist. Further the paper shall dig deep into the theoretical perspectives of ownership and control patterns by considering the authoritarian/totalitarian, libertarian and the social responsibility theories of media ownership. Specifically, ownership and control trends of the Kenya media shall be analyzed, paying more attention to cross ownership of media and the implications of this form of ownership to media industry and society in general. The main concern is that with the rapid increase of cross media ownership, where certain media houses run newspapers, television stations ND radio stations, the credibility and neutrality of the Kenya media is questionable. This is mainly because in such a case, the information, news and general output of television and radio stations are merely a summary of what was contained in the newspaper. We will write a custom essay sample on Media Ownwership and Control or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The argument brought forward in this paper is that the Kenya media individuals due to cross ownership. There is thus lack of plurality of ownership and as a result lack of plurality of ideas, opinions and voices resulting from domination by few. To add to this, the major owners are players in other sectors and therefore these media serve to serve and promote their other interests. Therefore, the recommendation at the end of it all is that regulation restricting concentration of ownership and cross media ownership be brought to play so as to promote plurality of ideas.Media ownership and control are major issues in media policy in the field of communication which cannot be overlooked in understanding how media works. The ownership patterns of media have changed world over due to general economic growth. Before the 20th century, many media were owned and controlled by the state. This however changed with the turn of the century bringing with it a rise of numerous newspapers. Southern 2001) puts it that as early as the turn of the century, German press theorists were already dealing with the concentration of ownership that was developing in the German economy and the implication of these media ownership patterns. This trend followed in most western nations where strong economic groups and conglomerates got into media ownership leading to concentration of ownership of the media where few individuals or groups gained control of the media. For example, according to Southern (2001) the mid 20th century saw the consolidation of media ownership in the U. S. A due to economic pressure and mounting competition which led to orientation of media chains. Many other nations including Britain and other European nations took up the trend in the late sixties and as Southern (2001) puts it, these trends and developments informed other countries world over in as far as ownership and control of media is concerned. It is as a result of this that cross ownership and foreign ownership of local media is in the increase. In most countries, the media is a capitalistic operation that is mainly dominated and controlled by private parties whose major drive is minimization of profit. Ownership of such media lies in the hands of a few individuals or groups. As Lowlier Cannels (1994) point out, contemporary researches indicate increasing levels of consolidation, with the media industry already being highly concentrated and dominated by a very small number of firms. This therefore dictates the media content where content that might threaten these interests is censored or doctored to suite these purposes. While citing Picador, Southern(2001) supports this viewpoint arguing that allocation decisions in such a media are made on the basis of economic forces controlling operations of the market. A study of Kenya Media ownership pattern points out how the media is dominated y a few individuals through cross media ownership thus limiting plurality of ideas and opinions. There is therefore need to understand media ownership trends for a number of reasons as put forward by Doyle(2002) who argues that one reason for understanding issues on media ownership is pluralism since concentrated media owners. In addition, he is of the opinion that this concentration narrows down the range of voices that dominate the media thus threatening societal interests. In this regard, it is worth noting that there are a number of media ownership and control tatters which include: state ownership, commercial or private ownership, community ownership and public owner Overview of Media Ownership and Control Patterns Although (1984) identifies four major models or exemplars of media ownership. The first is the official model in which the news outlets are state owned or controlled for example Kenya broadcasting Corporation in Kenya, the Voice of America in America, and the CATV in China. The second model is the commercial ownership which reflects the ideology of advertisers and their media owning allies. In this form of ownership, the media is dominated by private individuals or groups. The third model reflects the financing group such as a political party or religious group. An example of political ownership is the Kenya Times (defunct) which was owned by the then ruling party KANE. Thatchs (1984) states that the fourth model of ownership are the informal pattern which reflects the goals of individual contributors who wants to promote their views. It is important to note that the mix of these patterns varies from country to country and overtime within countries. Similarly, Ferry, Silverberry Final (2009) identify three basic global media ownership systems, each of which exercises a extinct influence on the construction of media messages including state ownership, commercial ownership and community ownership. State Ownership and Control The attribute of this system of ownership is that the news information agencies belong to the state. According to Silverberry et. Al (2009), under this system, the media is regarded as an instrument of the state. The government regards the media as tools to guide the people towards their social political and economic destiny. Consequently all information, including criticism of the government is tightly controlled. The media is wend and controlled by the government mainly to propagate its agenda. This form of ownership has been there for a long time and is still embraced by many countries. This argument is supported by Deferent (2007) who holds it that State ownership and control of newspaper and radio were and remain a key aspect of communist societies such as the former USSR, Romania, china and Cuba. In spite of trends towards liberalizing and deregulation in liberal democratic systems; the state continued to have an involvement in the regulation of media such as radio and Television. The best example of state owned media is the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation. Commercial/Private Media Ownership In this type of ownership, the media may be owned by companies controlled by individuals, families, shareholders or holding companies. Historically, many newspapers were owned, controlled and even edited by individual media entrepreneurs. In the 19th century, for example, many of the so called press barons wielded considerable additional power and allied themselves with the interests of the capitalist class thus gaining ownership and control of many media outlets. It is this form of ownership that has led to concentration of ownership where media hat commercial media ownership may involve a number of configurations which include: Mono-media concentrations and cross media / multimedia concentrations. Mono media concentrations or horizontal concentration refers to concentrated ownership within a single sector of activity such as newspapers, publishing, radio or television while cross media or multimedia concentration on the other hand refers to common ownership across different types of media outlets. It refers to the fact that global media corporations are crossing media boundaries and invest in a wide range of media products in an attempt to maximize profit. For example, ownership of a television station, radio station and a newspaper by the same individual or group. Doyle (2012) further says that cross media concentration can reflect either vertical or diagonal integration or both where vertical integration refers to the common ownership across different phases in the supply chain of a media product such as TV programmer production and TV broadcasting. For example, Royal Media Services Produce programmer such as Papa Shirttails and airs them. Diagonal integration on the other hand meaner common ownership between different sectors such as Television and newspapers or newspapers and radio. Examples in the Kenya Scene is Nation Media Group which owns The Daily Nation, ANT and a number of radio stations such as Easy FM and Q FM. Diagonal integration also occurs when firms diversify into new business ventures such as industrial production or telecommunication. As earlier mentioned private ownership leads to media firms placing profit above public interest which can lead to cultural decay in that popular media can become homogeneity. It often results in industry concentration, which in turn leads to stiffing or alternative points of view. On the other hand, benefits of private media ownership has some benefits which include the fact that it can result in better quality products due to competition, the interest of losing market share to a competitor forces firms to put forth their best products. Community Media Ownership According to Silverberry et. L (2009), Community based media are independent, community owned and run media which are usually organized on a non-profit basis by specific interest groups such as womens collective or an ethnic minority group. According to UNESCO Community owned media is an alternative medium to public \ND commercial media which engages in a social agenda verifying views and facilitating public views and conce rns about context specific issues and discussion. They are thus, operated in the community, for the community, about the community and by the community. It is worth noting that in this case community can be a territorial or geographical a township, village, district or Island or it can also be a group of people with common interests who are not necessarily living in one defined territory. What distinguishes community radio from other media is the high level of peoples participation both in management and program production aspects. Furthermore, individual community members and local institutions are the principal sources of support for its operation. As such community owned media are controlled by the communities that own them and not the government or individuals. A good example of such is Radio Amendable which is owned and controlled by the people of Rained and Ghetto FM which is associated with people from the Ghettos. One audiences, they are typically run on a modest budget and aim to serve the needs and interests of a clearly defined community such as the students in university of people f a small town. They as a result give the best to serve these needs. Also, they are independent from interference by advertisers since they depend upon small amounts of advertising and sponsorship from commercial interests. Other forms of ownership and control patterns include party ownership where a certain political party owns and controls the media. Such a media works for the party by mainly carrying content that is in support of the views of the party or the party leadership. An example of political ownership is the Kenya Times (defunct) which was owned by the then ruling party KANE. Religious groups may also own the media and Just like the political party owned media, such a media helps promote the beliefs and values of the religious group. Radio Waning which is owned by the Catholic Church is such a media. Theoretical Perspective of Media Ownership and Control In considering media ownership and control, theorists emerged with that attempt an explanation on ownership issues and their implications on media. Such theorists include pluralists and Marxist. Pluralists consider the value of the audience in determining media content while Marxist consider the owners as the determiners of Edie content as argued by Fourier (2001) that in Marxist ideology, press content predominantly reflects the interests of the owners and therefore helps maintain the status quo. Pluralists argue that media owners are generally responsible in the way that they manage information since media content is mainly shaped by consumer demand in the market place thus buying public gets what they want while at the same time professional ethics of editors, Journalists and broadcasters are maintained. The argument is that media audiences are the real power holders because they either choose to buy or not. In supporting pluralism in the media in Doyle (2002) brings forward the argument that the existence of pluralism requires both diversity of media owners and media output. Accordingly, pluralism in media ownership goes beyond audience control to involve diversity of media supply which is reflected through the existence of a plurality of media independent and autonomous media and a diversity of media contents available to the public. Marxist theorists in media ownership borrow from the Marxist consideration of existence of economic structure or the base structure. According to them therefore Media is wend and controlled by a few who rank high in the economic structure. They believe that media owners who are members of the capitalist elite class use their media outlets to transmit ruling class ideologies. Mainland (1973) argued that the role of the media in such a case is to shape how we think about the world we live in and suggested that audiences are rarely about important issues. Similarly, Fourier (2001) suggests that the underlying assumption of Marxism is that economic ownership leads to the control of content that promotes the interests of the ruling class at the expense of the masses. This form of ownership and control leads to concentration of ownership and control in the hands off few in the capitalist class in society. Other major theories that explain media ownership and control trends include the authoritarian theory, libertarian theory and the social responsibility theory. Authoritarian Theory control is solely in the hand of the state or the government of the time. The media is controlled by the ruling authority and no one other than authority has any stake in media. (Absolutism in media)The state owns and controls all forms of the mass media erectly. Therefore, the authority for all media is in the hands of a small group of party leaders thus, only legal party members can publish. Accordingly, media are mental production of ideologies as expected by authority. According to Gibbers, Peterson Charms (1963) the authoritarian theory is a theory under which the press, as an institution, is controlled in its functions and operation by organized society through another institution, government. It describes that all forms of communications are under the control of the governing elite or authorities or influential bureaucrats. The function of the press is to support policies and actions of the state and its authority. Thus the units of communication are expected to support and advance the policies of the government in power. Mass media, though not under direct control of the state, has to follow the bidding of the state. According to McLain (1994) the biddings are either through legislation, direct state control of production, codes of conduct imposed, taxation, licensing and other forms of economic sanctions. It may also be controlled through interference of the government in the appointment f editorial staff or suspension of publication. The implication of such form of control in media is that in addition to denying the media its freedom, it causes bias in media content since it is doctored or bent to suit the needs of those in authority. Libertarian Theory The libertarian theory advocates for total freedom of the press where there is no interference whatsoever from any outside forces. Advocates of this theory were Ala Thug an early 16th century philosopher John Locke of Great Britain in the 17th century among others. The French in the 1789 in their declaration of the rights of man wrote hat every citizen may speak write and publish freely. Out of such doctrines came the idea of a free market place of ideas. George Orwell described libertarianism as allowing people to say things you do not want to hear. Libertarians argued that the press should be seen as the 4th estate, reflecting public opinion. According to Gibbers et. Al (1963) libertarianism advocates for absence of restraint in press and thus is based on the inherent individual freedom of expression as a human right. However critics argue that too much freedom of the media is dangerous and as a result advocate that media be checked. Social Responsibility Theory Gibbers et. Al (1963) argue that pure libertarianism is antiquated, out dated and obsolete. This according to them paved way for replacement of Libertarian theory with the Social responsibility theory which allows free press without any censorship but at the same time the content of the press should be discussed in public panel and media should accept any obligation from public interference or professional self regulations or both. The major argument of the social responsibility theory is that media has obligations to fulfill to a democratic society in order to preserve freedom ND thus it should have high standards for professionalism and objectivity, as well as truth and accuracy. It should also reflect the diversity of the cultures they represent and even though it is free to regulate itself, the public has a right to expect professional performance. (The proponents of this theory had strong faith in the good when necessary. This is the form of control that has been embraced by many states today and has proved to be effective if well utilized. Media Ownership and Control in Kenya Historical Background of the Kenya Media The Kenya media started with one newspaper, The African Standard, which started n 1902 as a monthly paper owned by an Asian. While citing Echoing, Iraqi (2010) refers to it as the oldest newspaper In Kenya and claims it took an anti-colonialism stand. Other magazines and newspapers arose later and by independence, there were about three stable and influential newspapers- The Standard, Tibia Leo and Daily Nation owned by private individuals. The Independent government owned and controlled the broadcast media which was solely Voice of Kenya (BOOK) radio and television. Media ownership and control trends changed during the Mom regime especially due to rise of multi-parties in Kenya. This brought with it private ownership of both print and broadcast media. Iraqi (2010) argues that the new political dispensation ushered in some changes in the media topography which saw the rise of Kenya Television Network which was established by the Kenya Media Trust in 1990. Soon after, Nation Television was established by the Nation Media Group. The group later added a radio station; Easy FM. Royal Media Group took up the trend and introduced Radio Citizen and Citizen TV. According to Iraqi (2010) the period between 1992 and 2002 saw the rise of a number of vernacular and other FM stations which provided all sorts of opinions on issues of the day. It is this period that also saw the rise of other newspapers such as The People Daily, Citizen Weekly, The Leader and later The Nairobi Star. A number of other media have arisen driven by the profitability of the market and the assumption that presence of many media outlets translate to plurality of voices and as a result leading to a democratic society. It is worth noting that this has however not been the case in Kenya since despite numerous of media outlets, the opinions are concentrated in the hands of a few who own and control these outlets due to cross media ownership. Cross- Media Ownership in Kenya Countries all over the world have had policies that govern and restrict cross media ownership in order to ensure plurality. For instance, the United Kingdom issued a document CROSS- MEDIA OWNERSHIP that restricted controlling interests in both newspaper and radio. Part IV Schedule 2 Part 3: National newspaper group with 20% or more of the national newspaper market are prohibited service. From holding a license to provide a national or local radio Kenya was not left out and in this regard the Ministry of Information and Communication published the Kenya Communications (broadcasting) regulations which provided for restrictions against cross- media ownership or concentration of media control. The regulation provided that no broadcaster other than the public coverage area. It should be noted that by the time of its establishment, a number of media houses had already crossed media ownership and thus the regulation was already belated. As Murmuring (2011) puts it, already a number of licensed broadcasters had multiple licenses for national coverage of radio or television broadcasts. It is therefore right to argue that Kenya Lacks in rules and regulations that govern and restrict cross- media ownership. Considering the concept of cross- media ownership in Kenya, Iraqi (2002) defines cross-media ownership as a situation where a media house or a person owns more than one media outlet. Murmuring (2011) adds a voice to this by arguing that the Kenya media is dominated by a few players who own different media outlets at the same time. Evidently, Kenya boasts of plurality of outlets but lacks in plurality of opinion despite the many outlets since they air the same opinions due to concentration of ownership and control that comes with cross-media ownership. As things stand, the media in Kenya today is mainly nominated by five major players who own more than three quarters of the media outlets. The five include: Royal Media Services, Nation Media Group, Radio Africa Group media Max and The Standard group. The Royal Media Services is owned by the renowned business man Samuel Manchuria who is one of the media moguls in Kenya today. It owns one of the dominant TV stations; Citizen TV that deals not only in airing of programmer but also production of some local programmer such as Mother- in-Law (vertical concentration). It is also diagonally concentrated in that in addition to owning this TV station, it owns eleven radio stations-nine of which roads in vernacular. These stations include: Radio Citizen , Mirror FM, Ramona FM, Mule FM, Mushy FM, Mug FM, Chamber FM, Ages FM, Woman FM,and Briar FM. The implication at the end of it all is that all these radio stations give the same opinion but in different languages leading to lack of plurality of opinion despite their being so many. The best illustration is their inclination to one particular political alliance during the completed 2013 election campaigns. Nation Media Group ( OMG) is owned by a number of people through share holding. The founder, who is also a ajar share holder, is the Similar His Highness the Gaga khan. The OMG is predominant in the print industry in addition to owning a number of broadcast media; both TV and radio. Iraqi(2002) point out the fact that the OMG owns Tibia Leo, Daily Nation,The daily Metro, The East African, and Business Daily in the newspaper category and adds that the Daily Nation is the most widely read newspaper in Kenya. In the broadcast category, OMG owns two TV stations namely, ANT and Q TV and radio stations such as Easy FM, Q FM and Venus. It is also worth noting that His Highness the Gaga Khan has interests in other sectors such as insurance-Jubilee Insurance Company, Industries and Production- Premier Food Company and even the health sector- Gaga Khan Hospital amongst others. The interests of these other sectors influence the content of these outlets in a way since all the interests of the owner must be protected. The other predominant media is Radio Africa Group which is owned by the Ghanaian Patrick Quarto in partnership with William Pike. The group boasts of owning six radio stations- two of which are the most popular radio stations for the urban elites; Kiss and Classic 105. The others are Radio Jamb, X FM, East FM and Relax FM. The group also owns a TV station; Kiss TV and the third another media house that has dominated the media by owning a number of media outlets. Commonly referred to as Stan Group, the group is owned by former President Mom in partnership with Joshua Ukulele and one of his sons Gideon Mom (Barbara Limited). The group owns one Radio Station; Radio Miasma, a TV station KIT and three newspapers; County Weekly, Standard Digital and The Standard which is the second widely read newspaper in Kenya. The fifth of the five major media houses is Media Max which is associated with the president, Our Kenya. While talking bout Media Max, Mawkishly (2012) says that it is part of TV Africa Holdings which is owned by the Kenya family and which bought SST from Henry Engine in 2007. It took over KEY, a TV station and Came FM which were previously owned by Rose Smooth. The group also bought The People Daily, a newspaper previously owned by the veteran politician Kenneth Mattie in addition to establishing Mile FM which mainly features gospel content. As noted before, the media houses duplicate TV, radio and newspaper content thus giving the same opinion even though they are distinct outlets. In addition, the other interests of the owners such as politics influence the content in favor of certain ideas or opinions. The government and other stake holders need to build up the laws to govern media ownership such a way that will not only provide for plurality of outlets but also of ownership which translates to plurality of opinions. Other media include the government owned CB which owns one TV station; CB TV and two radio stations CB English Service and its Swahili counterpart Idea way Tibia, Community owned Sunshiny FM, Ghetto FM and Pomona FM among others. There are also other smaller privately owned media such as capital Fm, Hope Fm and Hope TV, Assayer TV among others. Positive Aspects of cross media ownership Statues(2008) argues that ownership of multiple media sources in a single market allows companies to diversify their content in order to reach small, niche markets of consumers, rather than focus all of their energy on a lowest-common-denominator mass audience. For example, Royal Media Services is able to reach very remote areas because of the various vernacular radio stations spread across Kenya with the many small sets of audiences identifying with the stations that broadcast in their native languages. This gives Royal Media Services an advantage over radio stations that broadcast only in English or Swahili since it has better penetration in the market. Alan, Albanian Michael (2006) contend that when media companies consolidate resources, they are able to reduce the cost of production and broadcast of shows, making it more profitable for both institutions. Locally an example would be that of Nation Media group that runs two television stations being ANT and QUIT. A team of reporters gather news and prepares features that are available for broadcast on either station. This cuts cost incurred in production, saves time and also provides variety for the stations viewers. Forthright(1999) states that media- cross ownership allows companies to attract advertisers by building larger audiences and distributing the cost of news production across a variety of channels. Forthright(1999) further states survival of free broadcast media. As the number of paid media services increases, traditional free media, such as radio and television, are garnering a smaller audience share and fewer advertising, forcing cuts to newsroom budgets and leading some to reconsider the long-term viability of free broadcasts. Doyle(2002) asserts that media concentration through cross media ownership helps to spread the risk, more importantly perhaps, the wide spread availability of economies of scale and scope meaner that firms stand to benefit from strategies of diagonal [lateral expansions. Many firms have become transnational, I. E corporations with a presence in many countries. Globalization has encouraged media operators to look beyond the local market. For instance, even if The Star does not do well in the market, It can be sustained by its sister outlets Kiss 100 and Classic 105 which do relatively well. For local media outlets, the large corporate backing helps attract sponsors that they may not have otherwise had access to. This therefore creates opportunities for larger corporations to reach into smaller local markets they have yet to penetrate. Examples are sponsored Royal Media road shows organized in the different counties. Although critics argue that media consolidation results in less news and public affairs programming in local markets, Milky(2007) insists that local television newscasts for cross-owned stations contain one to two minutes more news coverage overall than the average for non-cross-owned stations. Technological innovations such as satellite and cable television and the Internet have created an explosion of sources of news and information that makes monopolistic control virtually impossible. According to Gatos (2008) concentration of media holdings has not resulted in fewer media owners as some critics have argued, he notes that the number of separately owned media outlets instead increased by as much as 90 percent in some markets between 1960 and 2000. In addition to all these, it is evident that in Kenya, cross ownership in media has helped bring information to otherwise would be unrealized areas thus empowering even the illiterate who do not understand the national or official language.

Pride and Prejudice Characters

'Pride and Prejudice' Characters In Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice, most of the characters are members of the landed gentry- that is, non-titled landowners. Austen is famous for writing sharp observations of this small circle of country gentry and their social entanglements, and Pride and Prejudice is no exception. Many of the characters in Pride and Prejudice are well-rounded individuals, particularly the two leads. However, other characters exist largely to serve the thematic purpose of satirizing society and gender norms. Elizabeth Bennet The second-eldest of the five Bennet daughters, Elizabeth (or â€Å"Lizzy†) is the novels protagonist. Quick-witted, playful, and intelligent, Elizabeth has mastered the art of being polite in society while holding tightly to her strong opinions in private. Elizabeth is a sharp observer of others, but she also has a tendency to prize her ability to pass judgments and form opinions quickly. She’s often embarrassed by her mother and younger sisters’ indelicate and rude behavior, and although she’s acutely aware of her familys financial standing, she still hopes to marry for love rather than convenience. Elizabeth is immediately offended when she overhears criticism of herself expressed by Mr. Darcy. All her suspicious about Darcy are then confirmed when she befriends an officer, Wickham, who tells her how Darcy mistreated him. As time goes on, Elizabeth learns that first impressions can be mistaken, but she remains angry at Darcy for meddling in her sister Janes budding romance with Bingley. Following Darcy’s failed proposal and subsequent explanation of his past, Elizabeth comes to realize that her prejudices have blinded her observation and that her feelings might be deeper than she first realized. Fitzwilliam Darcy Darcy, a wealthy landowner, is the novel’s male lead and, for a time, Elizabeth’s antagonist. Haughty, taciturn, and somewhat antisocial, he does not endear himself to anyone upon first entering society and is generally perceived as a cold, snobbish man. Mistakenly convinced that Jane Bennet is only after his friend Bingley’s money, he attempts to separate the two. This meddling earns him further dislike from Janes sister Elizabeth, for whom Darcy has been developing feelings. Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, but his proposal emphasizes Elizabeths inferior social and financial status, and an insulted Elizabeth responds by revealing the depth of her dislike for Darcy. Although Mr. Darcy is proud, stubborn, and very status-conscious, he is actually a deeply decent and compassionate man. His enmity with the charming Wickham turns out to be based on Wickham’s manipulations and attempted seduction of Darcy’s sister, and he demonstrates his kindness by providing the money to turn Wickham’s elopement with Lydia Bennet into a marriage. As his compassion grows, his pride recedes, and when he proposes to Elizabeth a second time, it is with respect and understanding. Jane Bennet Jane is the eldest Bennet sister and widely considered to be the sweetest and prettiest. Gentle and optimistic, Jane tends to think the best of everyone, which comes back to hurt her when she overlooks Caroline Bingleys manipulative efforts to separate Jane from Mr. Bingley. Jane’s romantic misadventures teach her to be more realistic about the motivations of others, but she never falls out of love with Bingley and happily accepts his proposal when he returns to her life. Jane is a counterbalance, or foil, to Elizabeth: gentle and trusting in contrast to Lizzy’s sharp tongue and observant nature. Nevertheless, the sisters share a genuine affection and joyful nature. Charles Bingley Similar in temperament to Jane, it’s no wonder that Mr. Bingley falls in love with her. While he’s of very average intelligence and is a bit naà ¯ve, he’s also open-hearted, unfailingly polite, and naturally charming, which puts him in direct contrast with his reticent, arrogant friend Darcy. Bingley falls in love at first sight with Jane, but leaves Meryton after being convinced of Janes indifference by Darcy and his sister Caroline. When Bingley reappears later in the novel, having learned that his loved ones were mistaken, he proposes to Jane. Their marriage is a counterpoint to Elizabeth and Darcys: while both couples were kept apart despite being well-matched, Jane and Bingleys separation was caused by external forces (manipulative relatives), whereas Lizzy and Darcys early conflict was caused by their own character traits. William Collins The Bennets’ estate is subject to an entail that means it will be inherited by the nearest male relative: their cousin, Mr. Collins. A self-important, deeply ridiculous parson, Collins is an awkward and mildly irritating man who believes himself to be deeply charming and clever. He intends to make up for the inheritance situation by marrying the eldest Bennet daughter, but upon learning that Jane is likely to become engaged, he turns his attentions instead on Elizabeth. It takes a remarkable amount of convincing to persuade him that she is uninterested in him, and he soon marries her friend Charlotte instead. Mr. Collins takes great pride in the patronage of Lady Catherine de Bourgh, and his sycophantic nature and pompous attention to rigid social constructs means he gets along with her quite well. Lydia Bennet As the youngest of five Bennet sisters, fifteen-year-old Lydia is considered the spoiled, impetuous one of the bunch. She’s frivolous, self-absorbed, and obsessed with flirting with officers. She behaves impulsively, thinking nothing of eloping with Wickham. She then winds up in a hastily-made marriage to Wickham, arranged in the name of restoring her virtue, despite the fact that the match will surely be unhappy for Lydia. In the context of the novel, Lydia is treated as silly and thoughtless, but her narrative arc is also the result of the limitations she experiences as a woman in nineteenth century society. Mary Bennet, Lydias sister, conveys Austens sharp assessment of gender (in)equality with this statement: Unhappy as the event must be for Lydia, we may draw from it this useful lesson: that loss of virtue in a female is irretrievable; that one false step involves her in endless ruin. George Wickham A charming militiaman, Wickham befriends Elizabeth right away and confides to her his mistreatment at the hands of Darcy. The two carry on a flirtation, although it never really goes anywhere. It’s revealed that his pleasant nature is only superficial: he’s actually greedy and selfish, spent all the money Darcy’s father left to him, and then tried to seduce Darcy’s sister in order to get access to her money. He later elopes with Lydia Bennet with no intention of marrying her, but is ultimately convinced to do so by Darcy’s persuasion and money. Charlotte Lucas Elizabeth’s closest friend Charlotte is the daughter of another middle-class gentry family in Meryton. She’s considered physically plain and, while she’s kind and funny, is twenty-seven and unmarried. Since she’s not as romantic as Lizzy, she accepts Mr. Collins’ marriage proposal, but carves out her own quiet corner of their life together. Caroline Bingley A vain social-climber, Caroline is well-off and ambitious to be even more so. She’s calculating and, though capable of being charming, very status-conscious and judgmental. Although she takes Jane under her wing at first, her tone quickly changes upon realizing her brother Charles is serious about Jane, and she manipulates her brother to believe Jane is disinterested. Caroline also views Elizabeth as a rival for Darcy and frequently attempts to one-up her, both to impress Darcy and to matchmake between her brother and Darcy’s sister Georgiana. In the end, she’s unsuccessful on all fronts. Mr. and Mrs. Bennet Long-married and long-suffering, the Bennets are perhaps not the best example of marriage: she’s high-strung and obsessed with marrying off her daughters, while he’s laid-back and wry. Mrs. Bennet’s concerns are valid, but she pushes too far in her daughters’ interest, which is part of the reason why both Jane and Elizabeth nearly lose out on excellent matches. She takes to bed with â€Å"nervous complaints† quite often, especially following Lydia’s elopement, but news of her daughters’ marriages perks her right up. Lady Catherine de Bourgh The imperious mistress of the Rosings estate, Lady Catherine is the only character in the novel who is aristocratic (as opposed to landed gentry). Demanding and arrogant, Lady Catherine expects to get her way at all times, which is why Elizabeth’s self-assured nature irritates her from their first meeting. Lady Catherine likes to brag about how she â€Å"would have been† accomplished, but she is not actually accomplished or talented. Her greatest scheme is to marry her sickly daughter Anne to her nephew Darcy, and when she hears a rumor that he is to marry Elizabeth instead, she rushes to find Elizabeth and demand that such a marriage never take place. She is dismissed by Elizabeth and, instead of her visit severing any ties between the couple, it actually serves to confirm to both Elizabeth and Darcy that the other is still very much interested.

December 26

December 26 December 26 December 26 By Maeve Maddox The day after Christmas, December 26 (according to the Western tradition), has its own holiday associations. St. Stephens Day, or the Feast of St. Stephen Saint Stephen is the protomartyr (first martyr) of the Christian church. Tradition says that Saul, later to be known as Saint Paul, held the coats of the men who stoned Stephen to death in the first century. In the Christmas carol Good King Wenceslas, the king (he was a 10th century Duke of Bohemia) looks out of his window on the Feast of Stephen and sees a poor man gathering winter fuel. King Wenceslas and a servant follow the man with gifts of food. Wren Day is observed on December 26 in Ireland, Wales, and on the Isle of Man. Also called Wrens day, Hunt the Wren Day or The Hunting of the Wrens, the observation is believed to have originated with the Druids in pre-Christian times. It has become conflated with the Christian Feast of Stephen. For details, see the Wikipedia article. Boxing Day is a public holiday in several countries, including the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Greece. Like many Americans, when I first saw Boxing Day on a calendar, I assumed that it had something to do with prize fighting. The box in Boxing Day, however, is a container, like a tip box or jar. On the day after Christmas, servants and other service providers received year-end tips and needed a box to put them in. Nowadays Boxing Day is a big shopping day for after-Christmas sales. Details here. Kwanzaa is a week-long celebration of African culture that begins on December 26 and ends on New Years Day. Created in 1966 by American Ron Everett Karenga, Kwanzaa is now observed around the world. You can learn more about the festival at the official Kwanzaa site. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the General category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:"Because Of" and "Due To" 50 Synonyms for â€Å"Idea†Preposition Mistakes #1: Accused and Excited

I need a 4 page research evaluation on the controversy of Public and Paper

I need a 4 page evaluation on the controversy of Public and Private Healthcare in Canada - Research Paper Example The number of bibliographies and citation goes further to prove the viability of the information in the article. The author uses a list of citations to back up his argument on the matter (Chernichovsky, 2000). The article â€Å"Private health care in Canada: saviour or siren?† written by Marni D. Brownell and Carolyn A. DeCoster provides opposing arguments on a two-structure health care system as influenced by the financial implications and pressures in the nation. In addition, it presents and evaluation of the common beliefs regarding the health care system in Canada. The article is an academic journal published in the Public Health Care Reports in 1997. Considering the fact that this is an academic journal, there are chances that the opinions may be a bit biased and based on personal opinions mostly. There are a number of bibliography and citations to back up the writers arguments. However, the authors mostly focus on their point of view and do not use any counter arguments, which would have been helpful in persuation (Bromwell, 1997). The third article â€Å"Financing Long term Care in Canada†, written by Michael Grignon and Nicole F. Bernier is an empirical study comparing the three different financing schemes for long term care in Canada. The report in a way rather assumes the function of the government in trying to cater to this need for the citizens. The article was published in 2012 after being reviewed by other peers to ensure no bias in the information presented. To support their argument, the authors explain that Canadian Association of Retired Persons (CARP) have since time immemorial advocated for aging care which considers the needs of the person and not just financial needs. The authors even go further to use graphs and graphical presentation to try and give a clear of the information and provide evidence to their argument. There are no forms of generalizations

The Scientific Method in Everyday Life Assignment

The Scientific Method in Everyday Life - Assignment Example According to Healthy Living magazine, one of the most effective treatments of breast cancer is through the breast removal surgery that was conducted on once Kathy Bates (Huffington, 2012). Notably, this form of breast cancer treatment is quite essential development in the breast cancer treatment. The breast removal surgery involves double mastectomy without irradiation on the cancer cells. The breast-removal surgery or the mastectomy can be conducted through two methods including preventive measure and treatment methods. According to the National Institutes of Health, the preventative measures are often conducted to persons with higher risks of developing breast cancer while persons who have been diagnosed with breast cancer are subjected to treatment (Huffington, 2012). There are numerous types of mastectomy. Application of each of mastectomy depends on the degree of the breast removal. For instance, total mastectomy means the surgical removal of the entire breast tissue including the nipple. Alternatively, radical mastectomy calls for complete breast removal including the lymph nodes and chest muscles (Huffington, 2012). Lumpectomy is an alternative beast-removal cancer treatment; however, this process preserves most parts of the breast since only tumors are removed (Huffington, 2012). These new forms of breast cancer treatments, Double Mastectomy and Lumpectomy, are quite a development in Breast Cancer since the body is not subjected to radiation that often kills healthy

The Purchase Of Detergent Powder In Brazil Marketing Essay

The Purchase Of Detergent Powder In Brazil Marketing Essay Following is the consumer behaviour with respect to the purchase of detergent powder in Brazil explained through consumer decision making process. Product Choice Evaluation of options Information Search Problem Recognition Post-purchase Evaluation Problem Recognition: According to Solomon et al (2009) the problem recognition occurs when there is a gap between the desired state and actual state of a consumer. From the case inferred that, People in north-east region of Brazil wash clothes more frequently and they see cleanliness of clothes is part of their culture. They will change their detergent powder if they felt that their clothes are not clean enough. Most of the families own a washing machine in south-east region. People in this region perceive doing laundry as a duty and find ways to make process easier. They will change their detergent powder if it is not to their expectations. Information Search: Solomon et al (2009) stated that once the problem is recognised consumer will do an internal and external check to find possible solutions that might solve his problem. Women in the north east region wash their clothes in public laundry. This gives them the option of taking advice from their peer group in choosing the detergent powder, or point of purchase advice from the store owners or from their past experience apart from information through advertisements. On the contrary, Southeast consumers wash their clothes alone at home since most of them own a washing machine. Therefore, their information search is restricted to television advertisements and the advice from small store owners. Evaluation of options: Solomon et al (2009) stated that once consumers identify the possible solutions they will evaluate the alternatives using their respective convincing attributes to find the best solution which can solve their actual problem. The prominent attributes for majority of the Brazilian consumers are price, power of the detergent, brand and their past experience. Product Choice: According to Solomon et al (2009) while making the final choice on purchasing or using a product consumer is influenced by some factors. There are three main categories which will influence the consumer decision, 1. Internal influences 2. Situational influences 3. Social Influences 1. Internal influences on consumer decision From the case inferred that people in north-east region are highly sensitive to price than to the brand itself. Whereas in south-east region people are more brand conscious and go by their top-of- mind awareness. 2. Situational influences on consumer decision The Belk (1975) cited in Sydney et al (2000), has defined five situational variables which can influence the consumer purchase at a particular moment and place. They are Antecedent states, task definition, physical surroundings, temporal perspective and social surroundings. While purchasing a detergent powder, people in north-east region are influenced by the antecedent states (Brand preference and price sensitivity) where as in south-east region people are influenced by physical and social surroundings like display place of detergent powder in the store. 3. Social influences on consumer decision Solomon et al (2009) stated that consumer evaluative criteria generally vary across social class because of their variations in education, attitudes, values, income and communication style. Most of the women in north-east region are under same economy class and share a common washing practice of washing their clothes in public laundry. Therefore, their decision on purchasing detergent is directly influenced by these social groups. Post-purchase Evaluation Solomon et al (2009) stated that after purchasing the product consumer will evaluate how good a choice it was. The result of this evaluation is consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction on the product. Table1 shows the list of attributes used by Brazilian consumers to evaluate detergent powder. Table 1 North-east Region South-east region Ability to clean and whiten clothes. Smell of a detergent powder. Ability to remove stains. Easy packaging. Ability to clean and whiten clothes with less effort. Key industry players in Brazil detergent powder market: Unilever at a glance: Unilever has started its operations in 1929 and launched its most successful brand OMO in 1957. Unilever is the leader in detergent market of Brazil with an 81% market share achieved with brands like OMO (Favourite brand of Brazil), Minerva (brand sold as detergent and laundry soap) and Campeiro (cheapest brand of Unilever). Unilever wanted to increase sales by adopting penetration strategy. For the same, they launched their favourite brand OMO with four extensions viz. OMO Multicao, OMO Progress, OMO Cores and OMO Maquina. Each brand had its unique characteristics to target the diversified consumers. Procter and Gamble at a glance: Procter and Gamble started its operations in 1988 and acquired a Brazilian company Bombril in 1996 which has brands like Quanto, Odd Fases and Pop. With his formidable RD migrated Quanto towards Ace and Odd Fases towards Bold, Ace and Bold are PGs popular global brands. Procter and Gamble is in second place of Brazilian detergent market by holding 15% of market share. Procter and Gamble strategy is to enter the market by acquiring the local firms and their distribution channels. This seemed a cost effective strategy than developing own distribution channels. Local Manufacturers: A local brand Invicto is holding a 5% of market share in Brazilian detergent market. Invicto is the cheapest brand in north-east region of Brazil. Invicto follows a concentrated marketing strategy through mainly targeting the low-income consumers. Unilever SWOT Analysis: Strengths: High Brand Recognition: Unilever brands are highly recognised in the north east part of the Brazil. Market Penetration: High percentage of consumers in north east region of Brazil bought at least one unit of OMO or MINERVA which are the brands of unilever. Top of Mind Awareness: we have best results for the top-of mind awareness for unilever brands in north east part of Brazil. Unilever is a worldwide recognised company with a portfolio of 1600 brands which includes 45 key detergent brands. As of 1996 Unilever is a leader of the detergent market sector in Brazil by holding 81% market share. Pioneer of consumer goods industry in Brazil. Weakness: The price of OMO is perceived as high than all the detergents available in north east part of Brazil. The cheaper brand of unilever Camperio is perceived as a low-quality brand in the market. Except OMO, the other brands of unilever are perceived as low quality than the main competitor brands Bold Ace. Unilever is facing a big distribution problem in distributing his brands to the approximately 75,000 small outlets spread over north east region of Brazil, which are the key shopping areas for low-income consumers. Opportunities: Federal and local governments providing tax incentives to companies investing in the north east region of Brazil. The detergent market in north east region of Brazil is growing with an annual rate of 17%. Women in north east region wash clothes more frequently and they see cleanliness of clothes is part of their culture. Strong economic recovery in 1995-1996 leads to increase the purchasing power of low income consumers by 27%. Threats: Standardization of strategies is not possible with the socio-culture differences among the two region of Brazil. Threat from local brands is higher which are cheaper than the Unilever brands. There is a high competition from porter gamble with good worldwide marketing expertise. Market Segmentation: In a study by Sally Dibb and Lyndon Simkin (1991) stated that different customers have different needs and desires. It is not possible to satisfy all customers with a single product or service. Companies are shifting from mass marketing to target marketing strategy where the focus will be on a particular group of consumers. This process of dividing market into different groups is called market segmentation. The process of segmenting the market consists of three main elements. Segmentation Targeting Positioning Segmentation: The market can be segmented in many ways. Table 2 shows the different options for marketers to identify different segments in the market. Table 2: Demographics Socioeconomics Geography Physiological and behavioural differences among consumer Age, Sex, family, race, religion. Income, occupation, education, social class. Country, region. Purchase behaviour, consumption behaviour, attitude to product, lifestyle and personality Segmenting by Socioeconomics: In north-east region the per capita income was only around 2,250$. 40% of people in north-east region are illiterate. The lifestyle, culture and religion of people in this region were influenced by African culture. In south-east region the per capita income was around 6,600$ (more than double of north-east region). Only 15% of people in south-east region are illiterate. Most of the south-east part was influenced by European culture Segmenting by Psychological and behavioural differences among consumer: 73% of women in north-east region think that bleach is necessary to remove stains and use detergent powder primarily to make the clothes smell good. Where as in south-east region only 18% of women think bleach is necessary to remove stains. Frequency of washing clothes is higher in north-east region than south-east region. North east region people of Brazil find cleanliness of clothes is part of their culture. In south-east region most women uses washing machine for cleaning clothes, for them cleanliness of clothes is less important for self-esteem and social status. In a study by Sally Dibb and Lyndon Simkin (1991) stated that segmentation definitely will help to identify the different consumer segments but slapdash implementation will leads to failure. The segmentation process must satisfy the following criteria. Segments must be identifiable, executable, stable, marketable and controllable. In this case Unilever should segment the Brazil detergent powder market in to north-east region and south-east region. Targeting: Once identified different market segments, managers has to make decisions about how many and which customer groups need to target. In a study by Sally Dibb and Lyndon Simkin (1991) stated that the decisions would be like, Concentrating on a single segment with one product/retail brand Offering one product/retail brand to a number of segments Targeting a different product/retail brand at each of a number of segments Because of socio-cultural differences among the two regions of Brazil the standardization or undifferentiated targeting strategy will not work. The tailor made and differentiated marketing strategy will give the best results. Positioning: Positioning is not about doing something to the product it is what is created in the minds of the targeted consumers. In a study by Sally Dibb and Lyndon Simkin (1991) stated that the challenge here is to translate the needs and wants of the targeted consumers into a tangible mix of product, price, promotion, distribution and service levels with maximum appeal. North-East region: Most of the people in this region are illiterate and low income people. Most of the people in this region believe cleanliness of clothes is part of their culture. To satisfy the above needs of the consumers and to achieve higher market share in this region unilever management has to position their product as low price with high quality. South-East region: Most of the people in this region use washing machine to wash their clothes, cleanliness of clothes are less important for self-esteem and social status. People in this region are not price sensitive towards detergent powder as long as it has good quality. To satisfy the above needs of the consumers and to achieve higher market share in this region unilever management has to position their product with high quality. Portfolio Analysis: BCG (Boston Consulting Group) Matrix: BCG matrix helps marketers to find the potential brands in the market. BCG matrix for Unilever detergent brands in north-east region of Brazil. Stars: Question Marks () OMO Campeiro Cash Cows: Minerva Dogs: Brilhante High Market Growth Rate Low High Low Relative Market Share Diagram Adopted from BCG Matrix (Solomon, fifth edition) Stars: OMO has a dominant market share in north-east region of Brazil. Because OMO has a potential growth, managers have to design strategies to increase market share in the competitive environment. Cash Cows: Minerva which is the only brand to sold as detergent powder and laundry soap it has a reasonable market share in north-east region. Question marks (): Camperio has a low market share in north-east region. People perceive Camperio as a low-quality product. To increase the market share Unilever has to reposition his Camperio brand in north-east region. Dogs: Brilhante has a zero market share in north-east region. Its better for Unilever to stop the marketing of this brand in north-east region. BCG matrix shows us on which brand Unilever has to invest to increase its market share in north-east region. But how and what actually we have to do to increase the market share, marketing mix will help firm to accomplish its objectives by using product, price, promotion and place decisions. Marketing Mix: Product: North-East region: Camperio is perceived as a low-quality detergent which is the cheapest brands of Unilever. Repositioning of Camperio with new packaging and with new advertising message like Improved Quality with low-price in this region will help to increase the marketing share of Unilever. Repositioning of existing brand would be easily recognised by the targeted consumers than launching the existing brand. Repositioning of existing brand would not lead to any incremental marketing costs. In this region most of the people using OMO and the results showing that consumers are well satisfy with the quality of the product. Even the low-income people like Maria would love to buy OMO, only because of their tight budget they are going for cheaper brands. Solution to the above problem is selling the detergent powder through small sachets. Price of the product can reduce due to the small quantity which will not cannibalise the existing product. All the low-income consumers will highly satisfy when they get their high quality product in low price. The idea of selling the detergent powder in small sachet will eventually help unilever to increase their market share. Packaging should be simple and distinctive and should be based on culture that is the colour selection and the graphics. South-East region: In south-east region OMO and Minerva will go well as the people in this region are not price sensitive. Price: Use Pricing Strategy to defend its strong competitors and reposition Camperio brand with more attributes than that of competitor with less price to retain and gain the market share. Promotion: The advertising message should be different for north-east region and south-east region because there is a cultural difference and variation in literacy rate within the two regions. As Brazilians are more television watchers Unilever should go with 70% of media advertising with more emphasis on product price and availability in its different packaging sizes. In south-east region advertising message should concentrate more on product benefits. In north-east region they should go for extensive media advertising emphasizing more on product price and availability of packaging sizes to wipe out the negative perception among the consumers. In north-east region most of the people are illiterate they often depends on the advice of a retailer while purchasing a product. Marketers of unilever can use a push strategy in this case to promote their product, providing some incentives on number of sales to distributors and retailers. Place: Extensive distribution is necessary in north-east region by making the product available in small stores. Unilever management should provide some employment to the women in north-east region as sales girls to sell their products which will ultimately help to increase the word of mouth among people and sustainability of marketing. In south-east region most of the people decision on detergent powder resembles as habitual decision making, in this region point-of-purchase (ex: displaying of cigarettes near cash counter) display will help to increase the sales.

Gender Inequality Within Society Essay

Society has conformed our minds to view gender based on one’s role in society. This labels the person as a man or a woman and then classifies them based on the â€Å"roles† that society has assigned for each. Gender inequality is caused by the unequal perceptions or even the way someone is treated, based on them being a man or woman. It tends to be the result of what is seen as socially constructed differences of the typical gender roles. This is a social problem I find compelling due to the impact it has on society. Gender Inequality can be seen in different instances, some I feel more apparent than others. It can be displayed through gender roles by classifying a man’s role in society, versus a woman’s role. Gender Inequality can also be seen amongst relationships and how they adapt to what society feels is the way they respond to the relationship. Inside the workplace is another form in which gender inequality can be apparent based on the job a man or woman have. Gender inequality is overall very diverse and wide spread; both men and women are perceived and treated in various unequal ways. Over time, gender inequality is seen by both objective criteria, through the articles that establish facts of the individual issues and through subjective experience, in which my perception and others filter throughout their own minds; causing gender inequality to become a compelling social problem today. Gender inequality is shown through the generic labels that society has established, based on the individual being a man or a woman. The social role theory proposes that â€Å"gender roles in society, such as a provider or protector roles for men and child-rearing and caretaker roles for women, strongly foster certain emotions, behaviors, and traits that meet societal expectations for those roles,† (Bascom and Wilson 2013). A man is viewed as physically stronger than a woman, where as a woman as seen as more emotional and caring. â€Å"Expected characteristics of men who fulfill these roles include being goal- oriented, assertive, aggressive, competitive, and courageous, whereas expectations for women, based on more communal roles include, being nurturing, kind, showing empathy and sympathy, and seeking social connections,† (Bascom and Wilson 2013). Society has established roles in which differentiate men and women, by focusing on how they, as individuals,  should portray different characteristics. This allows for the opportunity of mislead perceptions, by the displays of gender in an unequal manner. If a man shows any characteristics that only a woman should have, he may be seen as weaker or maybe even deviant. This is true for a woman too, as that if she portrays too much aggression or competitive characteristics, she may be too manly, instead of fulfilling what should be her more nurturing role. Both men and women seem to face gender inequality, not just one more than the other. They both can face criticism, unequal treatment and stereotypes based on whether they choose to follow the exact way society has classified the gender â€Å"norms.† Although society has created these labels, it solely comes down to the individual on whether or not they choose to be deviant against them completely, in some ways, or simply not at all. Gender inequality over the years has improved when it comes to relationships. However more often than thought of, the power of the relationship usually still lies within the male being more dominant. â€Å"Current theoretical conceptualizations of gender emphasize that it functions as a social structure, that this structure affects people at individual and interactional levels, and that the gender structure is, in turn, recursively affected by people’s actions within social relations,† (Masters, Casey, Wells and Morrison 2013). Society has created this gender structure in which it finds appropriately fitting for how a relationship structure should function. This is done based on the way a man should act and what he should do and in return, how a woman should act and what she should do. It affects those in a relationship individually but also the relationship in general based on the way they choose to interact with each other; following society’s idea of a relationship between a man or a woman or going against it. It isn’t the fact that society won’t approve of being deviant with the gender roles for a relationship, but rather that they may be perceived differently or treated unequally due to them making the choice to be deviant towards those roles. This will continue to be a social issue, unless society as a whole, forms against the relationship structure we have been told to follow. Inequality in the workplace seems to be one of the strongest aspects when it  comes to gender inequality within society. Within an organization, â€Å"patterns of gender relations constitutes a gender regime and can include inequalities between women and men in the shape of discrimination in relation to opportunities, access to services and allocation of resources or benefits; all of these aspects of gender inequalities influence women’s and men’s working life,† (Elwer, Harryson, Bolin and Hammarstrà ¶m 2013). Gender inequality in the workplace can be seen in various forms. Among many of the findings pertaining to gender inequality, one of the most consistent is women earning less wages than men. â€Å"The relational inequality theory predicts that when gender is a culturally salient hierarchal status distinction, women will tend to be excluded from high-wage firms and jobs,† (Avent-Holt and Tomaskovic-Devey 2012). When gender seems most important, or better yet, more apparent, it is more noticeable that men will make more money over a woman in the same position. More often in workplaces, men tend fill more manager type positions where as women tend to fill lower hierarchy positions. We expect that â€Å"male managers will be able to use their statuses to capture more resources, leading to larger gender wage gaps than in workplaces where men and women are randomly distributed across the workplace division of labor,† (Avent-Holt and Tomaskovic-Devey 2012). This also shows that a man in a higher position, tends to be placed there with assumption they are more qualified, therefore creating gender inequality; not only is this shown with wages paid, but within the workplace as a whole and the type of job a man receives over a woman. Because of this, people generally â€Å"estimate higher salaries for men than women because they associate men with greater occupational status or competence,† (Williams, Paluck and Spencer-Rodgers 2010). In today’s society a woman earns only seventy-seven cents to every dollar that a man earns. A woman may even have the same role as a man and generally will still make less money than him. Assumed they can perform in a more competent manner and have greater resources to allow them fulfill that position, a man is usually given a higher position over a woman who could have the same qualifications and ability to do the same job. Which is why gender inequality in the workplace exists within society. Today’s society is responsible for the overall existence of gender inequality. Society has created what it sees as the gendered â€Å"norms,†Ã‚  labeling a man and a woman individually by giving each different characteristics to which they should follow. This has allowed and opportunity for unequal perceptions to be created and for the way someone is treated to be different based on whether they are a man or a woman. Gender inequality is seen in the established gender roles, the relationship that can occur between and man and a woman and gender within the workplace The societal views which have conformed our mind, are the reasons to why this is a compelling social problem that exists and unfortunately will probably maintain its status in society for years to come. Bibliography Avent-Holt, D., & Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (2012). Relational Inequality: Gender Earnings Inequality in U.S. and Japanese Manufacturing Plants in the Early 1980s. Social Forces, 91(1), 157-180. Elwà ©r, S., Harryson, L., Bolin, M., & Hammarstrà ¶m, A. (2013). Patterns of Gender Equality at Workplaces and Psychological Distress. Plus ONE, 8(1), 1-10. Masters, N., Casey, E., Wells, E. A., & Morrison, D. M. (2013). Sexual Scripts among Young Heterosexually Active Men and Women: Continuity and Change. Journal Of Sex Research, 50(5), 409-420. Skolnick, A., Bascom, K., & Wilson, D. (2013). Gender Role Expectations of Disgust: Men are Low and Women are High. Sex Roles, 69(1/2), 72-88. Williams, M. J., Paluck, E., & Spencer-Rodgers, J. (2010). THE MASCULINITY OF MONEY: AUTOMATIC STEREOTYPES PREDICT GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ESTIMATED SALARIES. Psychology Of Women Quarterly, 34(1), 7-20.